Theories of Distance Education(reprise)

Online Resources

Summaries

Distance education in the society of the future: from partial understanding to conceptual frameworks, in Harry, Distance Education: New Perspectives, Chapter 4, 32-38.

In attempting to understand, understanding distance education, the author first suggests we must learn and understand the three levels of understanding: (1) the intuitive, 'common- sense' understanding we have as participants in or observers of distance education activities, (2) reflective analysis based on experience, communication and comparison, and (3) systematic research and theory building. Three levels are interrelated and dependent on each other. An individual develops his or her concepts from their experiences and intuitive understanding of events and situations. Theories and models are in turn developed which help to understand everyday situations better. In that sense, concepts not only influence daily experiences they also help to explain it.

These levels of understanding are applied to the evolution of distance education. The author discusses distance education as Peters' describes it as a form of industrialized education, as well they are applied to the three generations of distance education, courses via mail, telecommunication, and computer communication. Levels of understanding and definitions attempt to tell us how something ought to progress, such as how distance education should develop. This is true, in that understanding cannot be neutral. Our definition of what we believe distance education should be and ought to go begins with our personal experiences, and our own needs, with distance education.

Rather than delineate the evolution of distance education into generations, the author views them as a set of system structures. They are possibilities and though some may view some modes outdated, other societies and cultures may view them as necessary and sufficient. While some systems have definite limitations, they may prove effective in some settings.

This all must be taken into consideration as distance education moves into the future. [Lisa Pealer]

This article of five years ago mentions the now familiar concerns over confusion in DE terms, misconceptions of those considering initiating DE programs, the dearth of research, etc. Moore goes on to reiterate his theory of transactional distance (1980) which by now is also already covered territory.
Of interest, however, because of technological breakthroughs since 1991 and the seemingly evermore pervasive availability of more and more alternatives is his mention of structuring teaching/learning programs to deliver them through the many communications media. Colleges of education nationwide clearly have a significant role to play in advising on the fit of the content to the medium for maximum effectiveness. Penn State's Instructional Technology Support Services, housed in the College of Education, represents an example of such a case. [Sue Anne Toms]

Independence and Autonomy, Chapter 4 in Foundations of Distance Education 2nd edition, Routledge.

By "Independence and Autonomy," Keegan is referring to the attributes that he sees as essential to the success of the learner in a distance learning situation. In fact, Keegan sees the distance learning process to be focused entirely on the student's needs, not the teacher's. He cites several sources that lead up to an understanding that teaching must be separated by learning in the distance education because of the "time-space barriers' of education. Here are six characteristics that C. Wedemeyer put forth for situations where there is one or more students who must learn without an instructor at the same place at the same time
1.The student and teacher are separated
2. The normal processes of teaching and learning are carried on in writing or through some other medium
3. Teaching is individualized
4. Learning takes place through the student's activity
5. Learning is made convenient for the student in his own environment
6. The learner takes responsibility for his progress, with freedom to start and stop at any time and to pace himself
(Wedemeyer 1973:76)
The key seems to be the separation of both time and space. Keegan does not consider students who do not have interaction on their own to be in a distance learning environment. That is, if a student is watching a video, but only for the purpose of taking notes, this is not distance learning. [Greg Hardy]

Verduin, J. and Clark, T. (1991). Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice

The issue of concern is the new definition of literacy. Literacy is no longer just the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. Today literacy includes technology skills such as the computer (Adult Literacy and New Technologies, Tools for a Lifetime, 1993, Office of Technology Assessment, US). It is projected that within a decade only 10-12% of the workforce will be blue collar jobs, the new jobs req to meet these new demands. The OTA report lists the following advantages: reach learners outside of classrooms, use learning time more efficiently, sustain motivation, individualize instruction and provide access to information tools. The use of the new technologies and distance learning are providing the solutions to our growing needs for education and training.

The chapter starts with five defining conditions of distance education by Keegan: teacher-learners separation; a formal organization; the use of technical media; the provision of two-way communication; and separation of the learner from a learning group. With the introduction of new technology, it leads to the virtual realities of cyberspace. The aim of distance education extends to an international level that it promotes symbiosis among various cultures of the world.

Boyd introduced a prescriptive theory for distance education systems. There are eight focal system dimensions in the theory: 1) who? - psychostructure of participants; 2) what for? - agreed goals; 3) what? - subject matter; 4) through which? - media; 5) where? - real and "virtual" places; 6) with whom? - sociostructure social groupings; 7) how illustrate? - views and illustrations; and, 8) how control? - rules and mechanisms.

There are five important cybernetic principles which apply to the design, development and operation of systems of actors and agents. First, concentration of effort is that principal actors reach the specific commitment. Second, requisite control variety is that appropriately matched forms of counteracting control variety must be provided for any possible sources of disturbance variety. Third, closed feedback loops is the feedback control with a set of standard. Fourth, collaborative game prescription is the prescription of complex system. Last but not the least, intermittent control means leaving subsystems alone as long as possibly appropriate to get on with their work undisturbed by higher orders. [Hi Shi Yam]

This web page is a description of a study on distance education. The study is broken down into three main areas; a general overview with a philosophical critique of the concept of distance education (DE) for universities, a description of several examples of different modalities of distance education, and an introduction into the vast written and on-line literature on distance education. For the purposes of this assignment, I am focusing on the future aspect.

The author asserts that there are four generations of distance education. According to this time frame, we are in the third generation. The fourth generation is characterized by the use of large data bases, hypermedia stacks, "dial up" access to video and text materials. Learners will be viewed as a "community of scholars" in which they are empowered with control over the scope and sequence of the material to be studied. [Melissa McCallister]